Farmer Tips

Maize is one of Kenya's most important food and commercial crops. However, good yields do not happen by chance. Successful maize production starts with proper land preparation, the right variety, correct spacing, balanced nutrition, timely weed and pest management, and proper post-harvest handling. This guide provides a practical maize production programme from land preparation to storage 1. Land Preparation Good maize production starts with a well-prepared field. The objective is to create a suitable seedbed that allows good germination, root development, water infiltration and effective weed management. Before planting: ● Clear the field of unwanted vegetation. ● Prepare a fine, well-drained seedbed. ● Correct soil acidity where necessary. ● Incorporate well-decomposed organic manure where available. ● Conduct a soil test to determine soil fertility and fertilizer requirements. Herbicides for Land Preparation Where herbicides are appropriate, farmers can use products such as: ● Roundup Turbo ● Catapult ● Weedless ● Kausha ● Weedal ● Kick-Out ● Roundup Classic ● Rid-Out ● Debar Always follow the product label regarding application rate, target weeds, safety precautions and pre-planting requirements. 2. Soil Testing and Fertilizer Selection A soil test should be done before planting to establish the nutrient status of the field. A soil test helps determine: ● Soil pH ● Nitrogen status ● Phosphorus status ● Potassium status ● Sulphur and micronutrient levels ● Lime requirements ● Suitable fertilizer options Don't apply fertilizer based on guesswork. Apply according to your soil-test results and the nutrient requirements of your crop. The fertilizer requirement of one farm can be very different from another, even when the same maize variety is planted. 3. Choosing the Right Maize Variety There is no single maize variety suitable for every farm. Variety selection should consider agro-ecological zone, altitude, rainfall pattern, maturity period, disease tolerance, drought conditions and market requirements. Maize varieties Some maize varieties available to farmers include: 1. SC Duma 447 2. SC Duma 43 3. DK8031 4. DKC8033 5. PAN 3M-05 6. DH04 7. TSAVO 4141 8. TOSHEKA MH401 9. MITUKI KDH3 10. H513 11. SAWA 12. SC Pundamilia 555 13. Pioneer 30G19 14. DK777 15. HARAKA 101 16. HARAKA 301 17. TSAVO 3106 18. RS 5101 19. ADV2308W 20. DK9089 21. ETG MH601 22. SC Tembo 73 23. ETG MH401 24. SC Simba 61 or other variety(ies) recommended for your area. How to choose Before purchasing seed, consider questions like: Where am I farming? → What rainfall do I expect? → How long is my growing season? → What maturity period do I need? → What pests and diseases are common in my area? → What does my market require? 4. Planting Plant maize when there is adequate and reliable soil moisture. Timely planting allows the crop to establish properly and take advantage of the available growing season. Recommended spacing ● Between rows: 75 cm ● Between plants: 25–30 cm ● Planting depth: 5–7 cm(not too deep and not too shallow) ● Seed placement: 1 seed per planting hole Approximate plant population Spacing Approximate population/acre 75 cm × 30 cm 17,800 plants 75 cm × 25 cm 21,300 plants The exact spacing and plant population should consider the variety, agro-ecological zone, soil fertility, rainfall and target yield. 5. Fertilizers for Planting The choice of planting fertilizer should be guided by soil-test results. Recommended planting fertilizers include: ● Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) ● NPK MiCROP Planting ● NPK KALI Planting ● NPSB ● Triple Superphosphate (TSP) or any other suitable fertilizer(s) recommended by your field extension officer DAP Supplies nitrogen and phosphorus and can be used where soil conditions and test results indicate a need for these nutrients. NPK MiCROP Planting Provides multiple nutrients required for early crop establishment. NPK KALI Planting Provides a combination of nutrients, including potassium, where required. NPSB Provides nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and boron, making it useful where these nutrients are deficient. TSP A concentrated phosphorus fertilizer that can be considered where phosphorus is required. NOTE: The best planting fertilizer is not necessarily the most popular one. It is the one that supplies the nutrients your soil and crop actually need. 6. Weed Management Weeds compete with maize for water, nutrients, sunlight and space. Early weed competition can significantly reduce crop performance. Effective weed management combines: ● Good land preparation ● Timely planting ● Proper crop spacing ● Early weed control ● Manual/mechanical weeding where appropriate ● Correct use of herbicides Selective Herbicides Examples include: ● Governor 580SE ● Kolopa ● Srasher ● Succeed 280OD ● TingaTinga The choice of herbicide depends on the weed species, weed growth stage, maize growth stage and product label recommendations. 7. Crop Nutrition During Growth Maize requires nutrients throughout its growth cycle. Fertilizer application should therefore not end at planting. Good nutrition supports: ● Strong vegetative growth ● Root development ● Healthy leaves ● Tasseling and flowering ● Grain formation ● Grain filling Foliar fertilizers Where foliar nutrition is appropriate, farmers can use products such as: ● YaraVita Crop Boost ● Lavender Total ● Wuxal Macromix ● Maxigrow ● Agrofeed Plus OR any other suitable foliar fertilizers Foliar fertilizers should complement good soil fertility management, not replace proper basal and top-dressing fertilization. 8. Top-Dressing Nitrogen demand increases as maize develops, particularly during the vegetative growth stage. Recommended top-dressing fertilizers include: ● Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) ● MiCROP Topdressing ● Kynoch Plus "S" ● Urea ● YaraVera Amidas ● And other suitable nitrogen fertilizers. The choice and rate should also depend on: 1. Soil-test results 2. Fertilizer applied during planting 3. Crop condition 4. Expected yield 5. Soil type and rainfall Apply top-dressing when there is adequate soil moisture, 5cm away from the plant stem. 9. Fall Armyworm{FAW} Management Fall Armyworm is an important maize pest. Early detection and timely management are critical. What should farmers look for? Regularly inspect the maize, especially the whorl, for: ● Feeding damage on young leaves ● Ragged or windowed leaves ● Caterpillars ● Fresh frass inside the whorl ● Damage to growing points Products for Fall Armyworm control Examples include: ● Belt — 10 ml/20 L ● Relay — 4 ml/20 L ● Benzoron — 3 ml/20 L ● Amigad — 10 g/20 L ● Escort — 25 ml/20 L ● Rapid — 10 ml/20 L ● Raptor — 25 ml/20 L Or other registered options Best practice Scout → identify → assess → select → apply correctly. Do not spray simply because other farmers are spraying. 10. Other Important Maize Pests Farmers should also scout for: Cutworms Can attack young plants around the soil surface. Stalk borers Can cause dead-heart symptoms, stem damage and lodging. Aphids Suck plant sap and may cause curling, yellowing and reduced plant vigor. Early detection makes pest management more effective. 11. Maize Diseases Important maize diseases include: ● Maize Lethal Necrosis Disease (MLND) ● Maize smut ● Northern leaf blight Disease management Use: ● Certified seed ● Suitable varieties ● Good field sanitation ● Crop rotation where practical ● Proper crop nutrition ● Regular scouting ● Appropriate pest-vector management For diseases such as MLND, prevention and integrated management are more effective than waiting until the crop is severely affected. 12. Water and Moisture Management Maize requires adequate moisture throughout its growth cycle, particularly during: ● Germination ● Early vegetative growth ● Tasseling ● Silking ● Grain filling Farmers should conserve available moisture through appropriate soil-management practices. Where irrigation is available, water should be managed according to crop requirements and prevailing conditions. 13. Harvesting Harvesting time depends on the variety, planting date, weather conditions and intended use. For dry grain production, maize should be allowed to reach physiological maturity before harvesting. Avoid harvesting immature maize Premature harvesting can result in: ● High grain moisture ● Higher drying costs ● Poor storage quality ● Increased risk of mould development Harvest mature maize and dry it properly before storage. For farmers targeting the green maize market can harvest earlier, when the cobs have reached the appropriate stage for fresh consumption. 14. Post-Harvest Handling Good production can be wasted through poor post-harvest handling. After harvesting: 1. Sort the maize. 2. Remove damaged and diseased cobs. 3. Dry the maize adequately. 4. Shell where appropriate. 5. Clean the grain. 6. Protect against storage pests. 7. Store in a clean, dry and secure facility. Proper drying helps reduce mold growth, grain deterioration and storage losses. 15. Protecting Stored Maize Farmers can use chemical or non-chemical storage methods. Chemical Preservation Examples of grain-storage protectants include: ● Actellic Super ● Sumicombi ● Skana Super ● President Gold Or other registered grain protectants. Use 50 g per 90 kg of shelled maize, and for cob maize, sprinkle the dust 30cm-49cm layer of maize. 16. Non-Chemical Storage Farmers who prefer a non-chemical option can use hermetic storage bags. Hermetic bags create an airtight environment that limits oxygen availability and helps suppress insect activity. For best results: ● Dry grain properly before storage. ● Use clean, undamaged bags. ● Do not mix new grain with infested grain ● Store bags in a clean, dry place. ● Regularly inspect the storage area.

Preferred Type in Kenya The most preferred type in Kenyan Market is the Zebra type (dark green stripes) which should have: Yield Potential: 25 tons/acre Maturity: 80 – 90 days for most varieties Oblong fruits in shape Average fruit weight 7 – 10 kgs Rind: light green with dark green stripes Deep red flesh, crispy & firm TSS 11 – 12% (Total Soluble Sugar) Thick rind: Good for long distance transport Yield Potential: 25 tons/acre Climatic Requirements Long, warm growing periods Bright, hot days (27 – 35°C) Warm nights (16 – 21°C) Cool temperatures & excessive rainfall delay germination, slow growth, and cause poor fruit setting and hollow fruits High humidity increases disease susceptibility and reduces flowering Soil Requirements Sandy loam, rich in organic matter with good drainage Heavy soils slow crop development and cause cracked fruits Soil pH: 6 – 7 Apply lime if soil pH is too low Seed Requirements & Sowing Seed Rate: 500 – 600 grams per acre Single row system: Row spacing: 2.0 – 2.5 meters Plant spacing: 60 cm Double row system: Row spacing: 3.5 – 4.0 meters Plant spacing: 60 cm Manure & Fertilizer Application FYM: 5-8 tons/acre Basal: 2 bags NPK Yara Power or 2 bags DAP Top Dress: 1st: 2 bags Yara Nitrabor/Calcibor @ 25 Days after Planting 2nd: 1 bag NPK Yara Winner @ 45 Days after Planting Micronutrients Ca, Bo & Mg spray during vegetative, flowering and fruit setting stages Inter-Cultivation Crop Rotation: Use cereals, legumes, or pulses for at least 2 seasons Weeding: Regular to keep the field clean Harvesting & Yield Immature fruits have poor content Overripe fruits are fibrous Yield: Potential: 25 tons/acre under good agronomic practices Average: 15 tons/acre Irrigation: Irrigate before planting and then once a week Avoid irrigation after long dry spells (causes cracking) Most critical stages: Flowering & Fruit setting Pollination Cross-pollination by insects (especially honey bees) 1-2 bee hives per acre Best time: 9 am – 12 pm Avoid chemical spraying during morning flowering stages Poor pollination causes misshapen fruits Pest Management Major pests: Cucumber beetles, aphids, leafminers, thrips, melon flies Monitor with traps and field scouting Use pesticides based on pest population Maturity Indicators Color change from dark green to light green/yellow Drying tendrils Yellow ground spot Hollow sound on tapping

Variety Selection When choosing tomato varieties, prioritize the following: Fruit quality and market preference Resistance to diseases and tolerance to climatic conditions Growth habit (bushy or vining) Maturity period and adaptability to your region Types of Tomatoes: Determinate (Bush Type): Ideal for open fields. These grow to a certain height, set fruit once, and mature uniformly. They require minimal staking. Indeterminate (Vine Type): Commonly grown in greenhouses. These grow continuously and produce fruits over a long period. They require support structures. Recommended Determinate Varieties (Open Field) Ansal F1, Rafano F1, Raja F1, Nova, Harmony F1, Zara F1 For BW-free fields: Nyati F1, Terminator F1, Rionex, Star 9068, Kilele F1, Twiga F1, Eden F1, Ranger, Rambo F1 Ecological Requirements Water Source: Should be near the field or supported by tanks and drip systems. Crop Rotation: Avoid planting tomatoes after potatoes or pepper. Observe a 3-month break. Land Topology: Slightly sloping fields are best for drainage. Soil: Deep, well-drained loamy soil with pH between 6.0-7.5. Use lime for acidic soils and gypsum for alkaline soils. Conduct soil testing for proper fertilizer planning. Nursery Establishment Raised beds: 15cm high with 30cm walkways Fine soil texture for better seed emergence Sow seeds 1cm deep and 15cm apart Mulch to retain moisture and minimize splashing Water in the morning; germination starts around day 8 Reduce watering before transplanting to harden seedlings Drench the nursery using: Bamako/Confidor/Loyalty (10g/20L) + Ridomil Gold/Matco72/Victory/Trinity Gold (50g/20L) Transplanting Water nursery before uprooting Transplant early morning or late evening using a trowel Maintain soil ball around roots Spacing: 60cm (between rows) × 45cm (within rows) Fertilizer Application Basal: Phosphate for early root growth Topdressing: At flowering: Yara Nitrabor or Calcibor Two weeks later: NPK Yara Winner After first harvest: Mix Nitrabor/Calcibor : Yara Winner (1:2) Recommended Foliar Sprays: Goldchance Super Flowers, Omex Murex K, Yara Vita Power Boost, Goldchance Multi-K, Easy Gro Flower and Fruit Irrigation Ensure adequate but not excessive watering. Avoid waterlogging and nutrient leaching. Staking (Support) Start early after transplanting. Use poles and wires to support plants. Increases yield and reduces stem breakage. Pruning Remove suckers, side shoots, old/diseased leaves weekly. Avoid removing productive branches. Yellowing lower leaves should also be removed to prevent disease. Weed Management – Weed regularly to reduce competition and disease pressure. Pest Control Major Pests: American Bollworm, Cutworms, Red Spider Mites, Tuta absoluta, Nematodes Effective Insecticides (rotate use): Rapid 120EC, Occasion Star 200SC, Relay 150SC, MitePawa 1.8EC, Escort 19EC, Cyclotron 450EC, Lexus 247SC, Kingcode Elite, Umeme Top 50EC, Pentagon 50EC Disease Management Tomato Blight (Fungal): Symptoms: Brown patches on leaves/stems/fruits Fungicides: Ridomil Gold, Trinity Gold, Acrobat, Absolute Star, Orvego, Matco 72, Luna Sensation, Mistres Bacterial Wilt: Use certified seeds and avoid infected soil Blossom End Rot: Maintain consistent watering Apply calcium-rich foliar fertilizers: Calmabon, Calmag, Ferrari Gold Harvesting Harvest begins from 65 days after transplanting; time may vary by variety.

Mango Production Mango is one of the most important fruits in the tropics, with its industry expanding in size and geographical location. It is grown in various counties in Kenya and is consumed as fresh fruit or processed into juices and jams. Here is an in-depth guide on mango production, focusing on varieties, planting, maintenance, pests, diseases, and nutrition. 1. Varieties Various mango varieties are cultivated, each with differences in shape, color, taste, fiber content, seed size, and resistance to pests and diseases. The main varieties include: – Apple, Ngowe, Kent, Keitt, Tommy Atkins, Vandyke. 2. Planting Mangoes thrive in deep soils with a spacing of 8-10 meters and a depth of between 1 cubic meter to 0.5 cubic meters. When preparing the planting hole, mix the topsoil with a debe of manure and a compound fertilizer, preferably NPK, mixed with HUMIPOWER/BLACK EARTH (a soil conditioner) at a rate of 1 kg per 50 kg of fertilizer. 3. Maintenance *Pruning Pruning is essential for maintaining shape, size, and canopy management. There are two main types of pruning: – Formative Pruning: Done in the first year to ensure the correct shape. – Structural Pruning: Follows harvesting to improve yield and quality. After pruning, spray with CUPROCAFFARO/FUNGURAN/GREENCOP at 50g in 20L of water to manage bacterial diseases. 4. Pests To attain high yields of pest-free and high-quality mango fruits, control insect pests at all growth stages, including flushing, flowering, pinhead, early fruit development, and maturity. i. Mango Fruit Fly – Description: Causes more than 50% loss of mango fruits. Females lay eggs on the fruit’s surface, with maggots penetrating and destroying the fruit, leading to rotting and fruit fall. *Control: – LEXUS 247 SC at 10ml in 20L of water – RELAY 150SC at 5ml in 20L of water (long residue effect) – KINGCODE ELITE 50 EC/RAPID 120EC at 10mls/20L of water (Superior double-molecule insecticide) ii. Mango Seed Weevil – Description: Spread by transporting infested fruits, damaging export quality. *Control: – EMERALD 200 SL at 10ml in 20L of water. iii. Scales and Mealybugs – Description: Visible honeydew/sooty mold leads to ants’ invasion, reducing fruit quality. – *Control: – EMERALD 200 SL at 10ml in 20L of water – LEXUS 247 SC/ENGEO 247 SC at 10ml in 20L of water iv. Gall Midge – Description: Symptoms include galls on leaves, affecting photosynthetic ability. *Control: – LEXUS 247 SC/ENGEO 247 SC at 10ml in 20L of water 5. Mango Diseases Mango production faces several challenges, with fungal infections being a significant concern. Key diseases include powdery mildew, anthracnose, and rust, affecting trees during various growth stages. i. Powdery Mildew – Description: Fungal infection attacking leaves, buds, flowers, and young fruits. – Control: – ABSOLUTE STAR 400 SC/TOKEN 325 SC at 10ml in 20L of water – PEARL 500 SC/GOLDAZIM 500 SC/CHARIOT 500 SC in 20L of water ii. Mango Anthracnose – Description: Caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides var minor, favored by wet or humid weather. *Control: – ABSOLUTE STAR 400 SC/TOKEN 325 SC at 10ml in 20L of water – TRINITY GOLD 452 WP at 50g in 20L of water. 6. Mango Nutrition Flowering fruits, including mangoes, require proper nutrition to ensure quality yields. Proper flowering, fruit retention, and quality are influenced by several nutrients. i. Boron Deficiency – Symptoms: Flower and fruit abortion, cracking of fruit, leathery leaves, and brown areas in the fruit pulp. *Solution: – BOROZINC at 50ml in 20L of water – CALMABON at 50ml in 20L of water before flowering and during fruit development ii. Zinc Deficiencies – Symptoms: Little leaf symptom, small leaves, general dwarfness, and chlorotic foliage. *Solution: – ZINC GOLD at 20ml in 20L of water – BOROZINC at 50ml in 20L of water at all growth stages iii. Root Development/Immunity Booster *Solution: – LAVENDER TOTAL/WUXAL MACROMIX at 20 ml/20 liters during flushing and pinhead stages. iv. Fruit Quality and Ripening *Solution: – GOLDCHANCE SUPER FLOWERS AND FRUITS/EASYGRO FLOWER AND FRUITS/MUREX K at bud breaking, full bloom, and fruit maturity stages.

For every fruit farmer, one of the most exciting stages of production is seeing the trees develop a healthy flush followed by abundant flowering. However, flowering alone does not guarantee a good harvest. The real objective is to maintain a healthy tree, support flowering, improve fruit set, develop quality fruits and encourage continuous production after harvesting. A well-timed nutrition and crop protection program can help the farmer manage these critical stages more effectively. Stage 1: New Flush-Building a Strong Plant The first step is to ensure the tree develops a healthy and vigorous new flush. A strong canopy provides the foundation for successful flowering and subsequent fruit development. At this stage, topdress with NPK Yaramilla Winner(15:09:20+TE) or NPK 17:17:17to support vegetative growth and overall plant development. Foliar nutrition can also be applied using an appropriate product such as: ● Lavender Total ● YaraVita Crop Boost ● Maxigrow Foliar(24:24:18) ● Foliup ● Omex foliar(24:24:18) ● Algreen Supasense Or any suitable foliar feed recommended by your field extension officer. The objective at this stage is to establish healthy foliage and adequate plant vigor before moving into flowering. Stage 2: Flowering Induction Once the tree has developed a suitable new flush, the next objective is to encourage flowering induction. Products used for flowering induction may include: ● Azatone SL ● Plantone 4.5 SL ● Azatone “Y” Application should be guided by the specific fruit tree, product label recommendations and the prevailing crop condition. Stage 3: Pre-Flowering-Preparing the Tree for Fruit Set As the tree approaches flowering, adequate calcium, boron and zinc nutrition becomes important in preparing the crop for successful flowering and fruit set. At this stage, topdress with either: ● Calcibor, or ● Nitrabor For foliar nutrition, suitable options include: ● Zincabor ● Borozinc ● Cabozinc ● Calmabon ● Bonzin The crop should also be protected against pests and diseases that may interfere with flowering and fruit development. Where necessary, incorporate a suitable fungicide and insecticide based on the crop, pest or disease pressure and label recommendations. Stage 4: Fruit Set-Turning Flowers into Fruits This is one of the most critical stages of fruit production. The farmer's goal is no longer simply to have flowers, but to achieve a good fruit set and minimize unnecessary flower or young-fruit drop. At this stage, introduce high-potassium foliar nutrition to support fruit setting and the transition from flowering into early fruit development. Suitable options may include: ● YaraVita PowerBoost ● Maxigrow High-K ● Goldchance Super Flower and Fruit ● Easy Gro Flower/Fruit ● Omex Murex-K ● Algreen Super-K(6:0:42+TE) Good crop management during this stage is essential because nutrition alone cannot guarantee fruit set. Adequate moisture, successful pollination, pest and disease control and overall tree health also contribute significantly to the final outcome. Stage 5: Fruit Development Once fruits have successfully set, the focus shifts towards fruit enlargement, quality development and maintaining the strength of the tree. Continue with the appropriate High-K foliar nutrition program introduced during the fruit-set stage. At this stage, a suitable biostimulant can also be introduced to support plant vigor, fruit development and the tree's ability to withstand production stress. The nutrition program should be adjusted according to the crop's growth, fruit load and general condition rather than applying products unnecessarily. Stage 6: After the First Harvest-Supporting Regrowth and Continued Production Fruit harvesting places considerable demand on the tree. After the first harvest, the tree needs to recover and produce new growth that will support continued flowering and subsequent production. At this stage, topdress with Yara Winner NPK/NPK 17:17:17 to support regrowth, recovery and continued production. Finally, when applying the basal fertilizers; - Dig a 40 cm deep trench around Lthe canopy. - To determine the correct position, dig the trench at noon when the tree’s shadow aligns with the canopy edge. This ensures nutrients reach the active feeding roots. - Avoid digging too close to the stem as the roots near the stem serve as anchorage and do not absorb nutrients effectively

Mode of action: Paralyzes worms’ nervous system, making them expellable ○ Spectrum: Strong against roundworms and lungworms; less effective on flukes and tapeworms. ○ Market examples: Nilverm, Knockdown, Nilzan Super, Levas Extra, Nemarid, Super, Kapsole, Wormicid Plus-O, Nemarid Plus, Levas Diamond, Wormicid Liquid General Signs of Worm Infestation ● Loss of appetite and poor growth ● Diarrhoea (may contain blood/mucus) ● Swollen belly (“pot belly” in young animals) ● Pale gums and anaemia ● Rough hair coat and general weakness ● Bottle jaw (swelling under jaw due to Haemonchus contortus) ● Reduced milk yield and fertility ● Death in severe infestations

Mode of action: Blocks worm energy metabolism, leading to starvation and death. ○ Spectrum: Broad spectrum; effective against roundworms, some tapeworms,and adult liver flukes. ○ Market examples: Albafas, Trubenzole, Bovaloze, Albevas, Nefluk, Wormita, Dexoben General Signs of Worm Infestation ● Loss of appetite and poor growth ● Diarrhoea (may contain blood/mucus) ● Swollen belly (“pot belly” in young animals) ● Pale gums and anaemia ● Rough hair coat and general weakness ● Bottle jaw (swelling under jaw due to Haemonchus contortus) ● Reduced milk yield and fertility ● Death in severe infestations

Cause: Avian paramyxovirus (NDV) Highly contagious, spread through direct contact, contaminated feed/water/equipment, clothing, and airborne transmission over short distances. The virus can survive for weeks in the environment. Clinical Signs ● Coughing, sneezing, rattling breathing ● Yellowish-green diarrhoea ● Nervous signs (tremors, twisted neck) ● Depression ● Drop in egg production, soft-shelled eggs Control & Prevention ● Vaccination ● Strict biosecurity: control access, disinfect footwear/vehicles, control vectors (wild birds, rodents, insects), maintain sanitation. ● No cure; provide supportive treatment.

Cause: Salmonella Gallinarum Clinical Signs: Drowsiness Huddling Poor growth Watery or chalky white diarrhoea, often pasted around the vent Reduced egg production Treatment & Prevention: ● Treat with sulfonamides (1 ml or 1 g per litre of water for 3–5 days) or oxytetracycline/doxycycline (1 g per litre of water for 3–5 days). ● Use probiotics and supportive care (warmth, easy access to feed and water, stress reduction). ● Control rodent and biting fly populations. ● Practice biosecurity and vaccination.

Cause: Pasteurella multocida This contagious bacterial infection ranges from acute septicaemia (blood poisoning) to chronic, localized infections. Clinical Signs: Swollen wattles with purplish discoloration Respiratory distress (coughing, sneezing) Yellowish diarrhoea Treatment & Prevention ● Treat with erythromycin or sulfadiazine at 1 g per litre of water for 3–5 days. ● Clean and disinfect poultry facilities regularly. ● Properly dispose of dead birds. ● Prevent contact with wild birds. ● Quarantine new birds before introduction.

Also known as fowl coryza. Cause: Haemophilus paragallinarum Clinical Signs: Facial swelling Purulent ocular and nasal discharge Sneezing Treatment & Prevention: Treat with antibiotics such as oxytetracycline, tylosin, or trimethoprim at 1 g per litre of water, or enrofloxacin at 1 ml per litre of water. Good husbandry practices are essential. Best prevention is through strict biosecurity.